Which of the following techniques is used sparingly because there is a slight but genuine risk of miscarriage or damage to the fetus while having a 99% accuracy in diagnosing genetic problems? amniocentesis CT scan ultrasound chorionic villus sampling

In population individuals where 149 have the A1A1 genotype, 18 have the A1A2 genotype, and 154 have the A2A2 genotype, so the allele frequency of A1 is 0.49.

The incidence of a gene variant within a population is represented by the allele frequency. Alleles are different versions of a gene that share the same genetic locus on a chromosome.

To determine the allele frequency of A1

There is the formula:

frequency of A1 = (2 x number of A1A1) + Number of A1A2/ 2 x population

                 so, A1A1 = 149

                       A1A2 = 18

                      Population = 149 + 18 + 154 = 321

                     The frequency of A1 = (2 x 149) + 18/ 2 x 321

                          hence the frequency of A1 = 0.49

Therefore, the allele frequency of A1 is 0.49.

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Final answer:

The frequency of allele A1 in the given population is 0.49 when calculated by summing the number of A1 alleles and dividing by the total number of alleles in the population.

Explanation:

To calculate the allele frequency of A1 in the given population, we count the total number of alleles in the population and then determine how many of them are A1 alleles. Each individual has two copies of a gene, so we multiply the number of individuals by two to get the total number of alleles. The individuals with A1A1 genotype have two A1 alleles each, and the individuals with A1A2 genotype have one A1 allele each.

Total number of A1 alleles = (2 x 149) + (1 x 18) = 298 + 18 = 316

Total number of alleles in the population = 2 x (149 + 18 + 154) = 2 x 321 = 642

The frequency of A1 is thus = 316 / 642
= 0.49 (to two decimal places).

Question is incomplete i have added full question ask for detail section

Answer:

Option c) independent assortment is the right answer.

Explanation:

Mendel's law of independent assortment states that

" Alleles of a pair of genes assort independently during gametes formation"

This assortment we can calculate by using punnet square. Look into the picture explaining how this independent assortment took place in the cell.

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment, which says that inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of another, can only be demonstrated in crosses involving at least two pairs of traits.

The postulate of Gregor Mendel that can only be demonstrated in crosses involving at least two pairs of traits is the second law or the Law of Independent Assortment. This law states that the inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another. As such, it can only be demonstrated in crosses involving multiple traits. For instance, if we consider a dihybrid cross between plants differing in two characters (like seed color and seed shape), the expression of these characters in the offspring will show independent assortment, demonstrating Mendel's law.

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Answer:

This trend is considered a(n) sociocultural factor.

Explanation:

In the field of business studies, sociocultural factors can be described as certain lifestyles or habits that characterize a particular society. The sociocultural environment of a particular area is used in business and marketing to make products which will attract the customers of a particular area. For example, with the increase in obesity of a particular place or city, people of that city will be more attracted to weight loss products.

Answer:

Option c. Genetic Drift is the right answer

Explanation:

Due to random sampling of organisms results in the change of the frequency of an existing gene variant in a population is called as Genetic drift.

example: Baleen whales were moderately large. Baleen whales are the ancestors of the present-day blue whale. However, around 4.5 million year ago a massive evolution occurred in them which  was resulted in blue whale origination.

Answer: A. Natural Selection.

Explanation: Blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) can weigh up to 170 tons and are the largest animals alive today. Their large size is thought to have protected them from large predators, such as Megalodon (Carcharocles megalodon), which would have preferred to eat smaller, less dangerous whales. What process best explains the evolution of the enormous blue whale body size?

Answer:

Option c. anterior-posterior axis is the right answer.

Explanation:

Bicoid is a maternal effect gene whose protein concentration gradient patterns the anterior-posterior (A-P) axis during Drosophila embryogenesis. it was the first protein demonstrated to act as a morphogen.  See image having more explanation.

Final answer:

The protein of the bicoid gene in Drosophila determines the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo.

Explanation:

The protein of the bicoid gene in Drosophila determines the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo. The bicoid protein is essential for the establishment of the head and thorax regions in the developing embryo. It is distributed in a concentration gradient along the anterior-posterior axis and helps specify different cell fates in this axis. Higher concentrations of bicoid protein at the anterior end lead to the formation of head structures, while lower concentrations at the posterior end result in the development of abdominal segments.

The bicoid gene in Drosophila is essential for determining the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo. Axis formation is a pivotal step in embryogenesis, with genes like bicoid playing a crucial role in defining the future head and tail regions of the organism. Research involving axial development has highlighted the importance of such genes in ensuring the proper symmetry and structure of the developing organism. Mutations in the genes responsible for axis formation, including Hox genes, can result in drastic changes to body symmetry, leading to developmental abnormalities. In vertebrates and invertebrates alike, Hox genes are pivotal in determining body structure and the organization of various body segments.

Answer:

Complete question:

We are trying to determine the possible modes of inheritance for some particular human disorder. We have a very small pedigree for this disorder. Assuming the pedigree is accurate, indicate which of the six modes of inheritance are consistent with this pedigree: Select one or more Y Linked Autosomal Recessive Autosomal Dominant X-Linked Dominant X-Linked Recessive We are trying to determine the possible modes of inheritance for some particular human disorder. We have a very small pedigree for this disorder, Assuming the pedigree is accurate, indicate which of the six modes of inheritance ere consistent with this pedigree Select one or more X-Linked Recessive Y Linked Autosomal Recessive X-Linked Dominant Autosomal Dominant.

Answer:

After the analysis of this pedigree, it is clears that the inheritance pattern is X linked because the offsprings are affected with parents genotgype

Explanation:

The inheritance is X linked dominant because of the presence of one dominant gene for the affected genotype in male.

The male individuals are affected. This is therefore not a recessive inheritance in later case, it is only when the two genes are present at the same time the affected genotype will be seen.

One mode of inheritance consistent with your human disorder pedigree could be X-Linked Recessive, but without more information about or a visual of the pedigree, it is hard to definitively decide. It is important to fully analyze pedigree to correctly interpret genetic inheritance modes.

In regards to the six modes of genetic inheritance, one mode that could be consistent with your human disorder pedigree is X-Linked Recessive. X-Linked Recessive disorders are conditions caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Males are more likely to be affected because they have only one X chromosome and hence, one copy of each gene on that chromosome. Females, having two X chromosomes, are typically carriers and more resistant to displaying symptoms.

However without more specific information or a visual representation of the pedigree, it is hard to definitively decide between the six modes of inheritance: Autosomal Dominant, Autosomal Recessive, X-Linked Dominant, X-Linked Recessive, Y-Linked, and Mitochondrial. Each mode has distinct patterns within a pedigree. Thus, it is important to analyze pedigree trees thoroughly for correct interpretation and diagnosis.

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Answer:

22% T, 30% A, 20% C, and 28% G

Explanation:

Two strands of double-stranded DNA molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds formed between the complementary bases. Adenine and thymine are bonded together by two hydrogen bonds. Similarly, cytosine and guanine form a base pair. Therefore, if one strand of a double helix DNA has 22% A, 30% T, 20% G, and 28% C, the other strand would have the following composition:

22% A: 22% T

30% T: 30% A

20% G: 20% C

28% C: 28% G

This is also called the Chargaff rule.

Answer:

LASIK or laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis refers to a kind of refractive surgery. In the surgery, the surgeon initially cleaves a thin flap of tissue from the anterior part of the eye. After that, a laser removes away the tissue to reconfigure the cornea so that light aims better on the retina in the posterior part of the eye.  

Cornea refers to a clear, safeguarding exterior covering of the eye. It generally offers protection against germs, dust, and other such deleterious particles. Apart from its protective function, the cornea also plays an essential part in amending the vision. The shape of the cornea is accountable for the bending of the light as it enters the eye.  

The focusing of the objects relies hugely upon the curvature of the cornea. Thus, in the conditions where the cornea gets damaged, that is, its shape gets changed somehow, the vision gets affected and the manner in which the light moves within the eye gets distorted.  

All of the above are true; none is false

Explanation:

Evolution is the phenomena by which an organism gets modified or develops more advanced characters which makes it more fit for the survival in nature.

The first statement is true because evolution refers to the modification of existing characters nothing new develops spontaneously  to overcome natural selection. During natural selection organisms that survive gradually surpass the selection pressure. And the evolved character of it gets fixed within the species.

Evolution occurs within the existing mechanisms and structure which find out new ways of surviving in the changing environment.

The genes that control the development are highly conserved and this is the reason we can trace back the similarities with common ancestors. And make a comparitive study of structural anatomy.

Final answer:

The false statement is: c. The genes that control development are highly conserved.

Explanation:

The correct answer is: c. The genes that control development are highly conserved.

Genes that control development can be highly variable between species, allowing for diverse developmental processes and structures to evolve. While certain core developmental genes may be conserved across different species, there is also significant variation that allows for evolutionary innovation.

For example, the Hox genes, which play a crucial role in determining body structure during development, can vary greatly between species, leading to diverse body plans across different organisms.

Answer and explanation:

In nature there are different mechanisms that prevent the crossbreeding between different species, what in biology is called reproductive barriers. Some mechanisms that act by preventing hybridization between different species are:

These mechanisms are responsible for preserving the genetic integrity of each species by preventing hybridization between different species.

This is not accurate. In the case of sea urchins, the encounter of gametes requires two chemical mechanisms:  

These two chemical mechanisms ensure that gametes of two different species cannot be joined and fertilized, which is an example of gametic isolation.

This is accurate. Horses and donkeys belong to two different species, with a different chromosomal load:

Both species can be bred, but their descendant, mules (Equus africanus x ferus), have an odd number of chromosomes (63) and are infertile. This represents an exact example of hybrid breakdown.

This is not accurate. The sensitivity to the touch of damselflies is specific to individuals of the same species, preventing mating between male and female of different species.

This, like courtship, is a mechanism that prevents crossbreeding between different species, establishing an example of mechanical isolation.

This is accurate. When two related but different species - such as turtles - have their mating period at different times of the year, there is talk of temporal or seasonal isolation.

Temporal isolation is a reproductive barrier that prevents crossing between different species, due to their mating habits at different times.

This is not accurate. In sponges, like some coral species, periods of release of gametes and fertilization vary throughout the day, with some synchrony between individuals of the same species.

The fact that some sponges release their gametes by day and other species do it at night is an example of the reproductive barrier called temporal isolation.

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Answer: It occurred a dihybrid cross and epistasis.

Explanation: In dihybrid cross, two different genes controlled two different traits. When they interact with each other is called Epistasis. However, in wheat plants, the genes related to color kernels don't act opposedly to each other. In other words, the genes have the same role in producing protein, so they can substitute for each other.

In the color determination mechanism, a biochemical reaction is necessary to convert a precursor substance into a pigment and that reaction happens with the product of either genes. That's why having a dominant allele makes the wheat colorful. So, crossing colored kernels with white ones will produce a heterozygous F1 generation. Crossing this generation will produce a F2 generation with modified ratio of 15 colored: 1 non colored because, every individual who has  dominant alleles will produce the substance and thus the biochemical reaction will happen. Only recessive homozygous ones won't have the substance and so won't have color.

Answer:

There is an increase in wool length and a little decrease in body size

Explanation:

Given that:

the narrow-sense heritability of wool length in a breed of sheep is 0.92;     &

the narrow-sense heritability of body size is 0.87.

As these traits approaches 1, the higher the rate that helps them to provide a positive feedback for selection.

The question proceeds by stating that " The genetic correlation between wool length and body size is –0.84."

You see, the functionality of this negative (-0.84) genetic correlation tends to create an imbalance between these heritable traits. As such, there is a shift in the paradigm in which one traits tends to increase and the other trait to decrease.

Now, if a breeder selects a sheep with longer wool, there is an increase in wool length since he selects it although there will be a little decrease in body size due to the negative genetic correlation effect between the two heritable traits.

Answer:

B. the input zone of a nerve cell.

Explanation:

Dendrites are the small extensions that come out of the soma or cell body of a neuron. The function of dendrites is to receive the nerve signals or information from the axons of the presynaptic neurons and carry them towards the cell body or soma. In a synapse, the signals from the axons of the presynaptic neurons are revived by dendrites of postsynaptic neurons. The plasma membrane of dendrites have receptors to which the chemical messengers from other cells bind. In this way, dendrites serve as input zone of a nerve cell.

Dendrites are the input zone of a nerve cell. They receive information from other neurons and deliver it to the body of the neuron. They are not glial cells, small interneurons, or the conduction zone of a nerve cell.

Dendrites are best described as B. the input zone of a nerve cell. These are branch-like structures that protrude from the neuron. They play a crucial role in receiving information from other neurons and transmitting it to the body of the neuron. Unlike the axon, which is the output zone of the nerve cell, the dendrites play an essential role in receiving neural inputs or signals, acting as the 'input zone'. They are not a type of glial cell (which are non-neuronal cells in the nervous system), nor are they small interneurons or the conduction zone of a nerve cell.

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Answer:

Genetic code

Explanation:

Genetic code refers to the set of rules by which the information encoded in the genetic material is translated into the proteins. The genetic code is present on the genes in the form of triplets of nucleotides  called codons which specifies the specific amino acid.

The codon system of the genetic code rules allows the 4 different nucleotides to form specific amino acids by the combination of the four different nucleotide in the triplets.

Thus, Genetic code is the correct answer.

Answer: Gram negative bacteria can appear gram positive if it is under decolorized I.e the alcohol is left for a very short time and the CV-I complex is not wash away, the bacteria can look like gram positive.

A gram positive bacteria can look like gram negative when it has been over decolorized, by allowing the decolorizing agent to stay too long on it or by using acetone.

Explanation:

Gram positive bacteria stained crystal violet when subjected to gram staining because it have cell wall composed of thick layers of peptidoglycan.

Gram negative bacteria have cell walls with thin layers of peptidoglycan and don't retain the crystal violet color when stained.

Answer: Option E.

Eliza require an antibody that bind to protein of interest.

Explanation:

Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay is a plate like or immunological technique or assay that Is use to detect and measure peptides, proteins,hormones and antibodies.

Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay require an antibody that can bind to a specific protein of interest.

Answer:

The given statement is true.

Explanation:

A condition in which uncharacteristically large, unusual and immature RBCs known as megaloblasts gets generated by the bone marrow is known as megaloblastic anemia. The condition can arise due to many causes of which deficiencies of folate or vitamin B12 (cobalamin) are the most general ones. The mentioned vitamins perform an essential function in the generation of RBCs.  

The signs and symptoms of megaloblastic anemia are lightheadedness, shortness of breath, pale skin, unusual heartbeat, and dizziness. Some of the other signs of the condition are weakness in muscles, pains and aches, and dyspnea.  

Answer: True.

Explanation:

Megaloblastic anaemia is a medical condition in which the bone marrow which produce red blood cells produces very large, abnormal, unstructural cells called megaloblasts. This result from disruption in DNA synthesis. It is a nutritional defficiency which is due to inability of the body to absord nutrients. This is caused by deficiency of vitamin B12 and folate. The symptoms include dizziness, increase heart rate, e.t.c

It can be cured by taking dietary supplements of vitamin B12 and folate depending on the root cause.

Answer:

Obligate Anaerobes

Explanation:

This are organisms that can  survive in condition where there is no  normal concentration of atmospheric oxygen. These organisms sensitivity to oxygen however varies from one species to another. Examples are Clostodium, bacteriods . They obtain their  energy through Anaerobic respiration. This fermentation process produce small amount of ATPs,because, it uses electron acceptor    in the process of energy generation  compare to aerobic respiration which makes use of  electron transport chain. This explains the reasons why the aerobic respiration produces more energy than than anaerobic.

Organisms that respire in the presence  or absence of oxygen are called falcultative arerobes. Thus they are different from  obligate anaerobes both in oxygen sensitivity and tolerance, example -staphylococcus spp.

Basically their sensitivity to oxygen is due to:

1. their inability to produce required  amount  enzymes  (catalase and superperoxide  dimutase) to detoxify  superoxide and hydrogen peroxide  build up in their cells produced from unpaired electrons in their orbitals

2 Growth inhibition from  High redox potential  of  dissolved oxygen also affects

3.Inhibition of metabolic enzymes in obligates  from  formation of  disulfide from oxidation of sulfides.

All theses reactions made these organisms to be intolerant  to oxygen concentration.

Answer: They are Obligate anaerobes.

Explanation:

Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms that survive and strive well in the absence of oxygen. Presence of oxygen is lethal to obligate anaerobes. Obligate anaerobes lack superoxide dismutase and catalase or peroxidase enzymes which make oxygen concentration to be lethal to them. Obligate anaerobes are poisoned and inhibited by oxygen. Examples include clostridium and bacteriods. These bacteria obtain energy through anaerobic respiration and fermentation process where they obtain little amount of ATP. They are much different from Obligate aerobes, as obligate aerobes require oxygen to to survive.

Answer:

Consciousness, human emotion etc, are emergent properties

Explanation:

The properties which are characteristics of an entire system and not its constituting members are called as emergent properties.  

Consciousness with in an individual human being can be termed as an emergent property of nervous system. A single neuron cannot generate or holds the sense of consciousness, self-awareness, pride or honor etc. The entire nervous system can also generate complex human emotions such as fear, joy, pride etc. Neuro-biologists have not been able to depict the expression of these functions at micro level such as a single neuron and thus these properties are termed as emergent properties.  

Answer:

The correct option is 'C' that is eventually the population stop increasing or would decreases due to lack of food and living space.

Explanation:

In 1798, he wrote an essay on Principle of population where he described that how the population will grow with economy.

He claimed that the population will grow until the food supply decreases and then the population will stop growing due to lack of food and space and those individuals that can fight against this condition and and could attain food, space and other essential necessities will survive.

Answer/ Explanation:

a. The genotype of a homozygous white eyed long winged female would be Vg+Vg+XrXr. We denote the white allele as recessive (r) because the XY male only has one copy and yet has red eyes, so the red eye trait (R) must be dominant. A homozygous red eyed vestigial winged male would have be VgVgXRY. The possible gametes for the female are Vg+Xr only. For the male, the possible gametes are VgXR or VgY

The attached punnett square shows the results of the cross. The females will all be Vg+VgXRXr. The males will all be Vg+VgXRY (must inherit Y from father). That means they will all  have normal length wings, the males will have white eyes and the females will have red eyes.

b. The F2 flies arise from intercrossing the F1, so the cross will be Vg+VgXRXr x Vg+VgXRY. The possible gametes for the mother are: Vg+XR, Vg+Xr, VgXR or VgXr. The possible gametes for the father are Vg+Xr

, Vg+Y

, VgXr

, VgY

. The attached punnet square shows this cross. The ratio of the phenotypes will be 6:6:2:2, or 3:3:1:1 (long-winged red eye: long-winged white eye: vestigial wing red eye: vestigial wing white eye), genotypes shown in the attachment.

c. F1 cross back to the mother would be Vg+VgXRY x Vg+Vg+XrXr. The genotypes are shown in the attached punnet square. The offspring will all be long-winged with white eyes. The F1 to the father would be Vg+VgXRXr x VgVgXRY. The ratio would be 3:3:1:1 long-winged red eye: long-winged white eye: vestigial wing red eye: vestigial wing white eye

Final answer:

In crossing a homozygous white-eyed, long-winged female Drosophila with a homozygous red-eyed, vestigial-winged male, the F1 generation will have all females with red eyes and long wings and all males with white eyes and vestigial wings. The F2 generation shows a mix of possible phenotypes depending on the sex and inherited genes. Backcrossing the F1 with the original parents yields specific outcomes based on the traits of the parents and the mechanisms of inheritance at play.

Explanation:

Crossing Flies: Drosophila Melanogaster Genetics

In Drosophila melanogaster, the genetics of eye color and wing size are well-studied, with the white-eye trait being X-linked and vestigial wings being autosomal recessive. Considering a cross between a homozygous white-eyed, long-winged female and a homozygous red-eyed, vestigial-winged male, we can predict the outcomes for the F1 and F2 generations, as well as the results of backcrossing F1 individuals with each parent.
a. F1 Generation

b. F2 Generation

c. Backcross to Parents

Answer:

No, due to the difference in Peptidoglycan layer

Explanation:

Since the mode of operation of the drug penicillin is to prevent the proper build-up of peptidoglycan in the cell wall of bacteria and bursting up its cell wall, Penicillin would have greater effect in killing Gram-negative bacteria with thin layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, unlike Gram-positive bacteria with a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall.

Answer:

Three proposed models: 1) Conservative

2) Semiconservative

3) Dispersive

Correct one: 2) Semiconservative

Explanation:

Meselson and Stahl proposed that the process of DNA replication could be conservative, semiconservative or dispersive. Conservative DNA replication will form one DNA duplex with both newly formed strands and the other duplex with both parental strands. The semi conservative mechanism will form two DNA helices each of which would have one parental strand and one newly formed strand (hybrid). The dispersive mechanism will form DNA double helices with patches of the new and parental strand.

However, they found that DNA replication follows a semi-conservative mechanism as after two rounds of replication of heavy chain DNA in the light-medium formed two molecules of hybrid DNA and two DNA molecules with light chains only. There was no DNA molecule with both the strands having the heavy chains.

The three proposed models for DNA replication individually tested by Meselson and Stahl in 1958 were the conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive models. Their experiment proved the semi-conservative model, where each new DNA molecule consists of one old and one new strand, to be the accurate depiction.

In 1958, Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl conducted an experiment with the goal of determining the accurate model for DNA replication. The three proposed models that they evaluated were the conservative model, the semi-conservative model, and the dispersive model.

In the conservative model, the parent DNA molecule remains intact and an all-new molecule is formed based on its template. In contrast, the semi-conservative model suggests that each of the two new DNA molecules consists of one original and one new strand, replicating its structure from the parent molecule. Lastly, the dispersive model proposes that each strand of both daughter molecules contains a mixture of old and newly synthesized DNA.

As a result of the experiment, they found that the semi-conservative model was the correct depiction of DNA replication.

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Answer:

Descriptive study

Explanation:

Any research study can be classified into two groups

a) Descriptive and  

b) Analytical study

A Descriptive study is also referred as non-analytic study as it involves understanding of something happening in a population as a whole since time frame being referred by doing through literature review, studying case reports, conducting surveys, doing comparisons and referring previous researches. It helps to understand prevalence, incidence, or experience of a group  

While analytic study is based on establishing relation between two factors through experiment

Because the researcher had access to twenty years of data on the same participants in an education program, the researcher was able to perform a longitudinal study. This type of research is particularly powerful for tracking changes and developments over time.

Longitudinal studies follow the same group of individuals and assess them repeatedly across a protracted timespan. For instance, psychologist Rich Lucas was able to utilize longitudinal data from over 20,000 Germans across two decades to explore the implications of marriage on happiness. Such studies can reveal impactful insights into the long-term effectiveness of educational programs and behavioral trends but can also be resource-intensive to conduct.

Longitudinal research contrasts with cross-sectional research, which analyzes different segments of a population at a single point in time. While cross-sectional studies can be less expensive and quicker to execute, they do not provide the sequential data over time that longitudinal research can offer.

This is because the pH of the solution changes the chemical and stereochemical properties of the solution.

All the proteins or polypeptides are formed of polymers of amino acids. These amino acids comprise of an alpha carbon, where a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group and a variable group R is attached. All these four groups have their specific stereochemistry which gives the polypeptide a particular shape in their coiled form.

Here in case of polyglutamate, the polymer is formed of chains of glutamic acid. This glutamic acid has carboxyl group in the R group which remains free even in the polymerized state. In acidic pH, the carboxyl group has its normal structure - COOH, but as the pH increase to 7,the hydrogen ion dissociates making it - COO⁻. So the stereochemistry changes and the specific rotation also changes.

Similarly in poly lysine, there's amino group in the R group which remains stable in alkaline pH of 10,but in case of neutral or acidic pH, the structure becomes - NH3⁺. So, the specific rotation changes.

Final answer:

The secondary structure of proteins, like alpha-helix, is crucial for protein function and is stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The alpha-helix structure can be altered by pH changes, resulting in different physical properties, such as specific rotation, which indicates structural changes.

Explanation:

Effect of pH on Protein Secondary Structure

The secondary structure of proteins, like the alpha-helix (α-helix) and beta-pleated sheet (β-pleated), plays a critical role in the protein's overall structure and function. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the amino acids in the protein chain. The α-helix is particularly stable due to hydrogen bonds that form between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid and the amide hydrogen four residues away. Changes in pH can lead to a disruption of these hydrogen bonds, causing the protein to unfold or alter its conformation. This can be observed through changes in physical properties, such as specific rotation, which is a measure of how a substance rotates polarized light. Polyglutamate and polylysine are examples of polypeptides that change from an α-helical structure to a randomly coiled conformation when the pH shifts away from their optimal range, thereby exhibiting a change in specific rotation.

Answer:

At 0hr it was 200 bacteria

At 1 hr it doubled and was 400

Means: at every 1 hr the population of the bacteria doubles

400 bacteria = 1hr

2000 bacteria = X

X = 2000 × 1 / 400

X = 5 hrs

Answer: Western Blotting

Explanation:

The sample is first denatured followed by the gel electrophoresis. Animal derived or synthetic antibody is produced which has the ability to bind to the protein.

The electrophoresis membrane is then washed by primary antibody before the excess antibody is washed off.

Then the secondary antibody is added to get attached to the primary antibody and then it can be visualized by immunofluorescence or some other method.

Answer:

Fluorescent Staining Method

Explanation:

Fluorescent staining uniformly stains protein, is rapid and offers sensitivity equal to that attained by silver staining method. It involves no destaining step and is compatible with mass spectrometry and microsequencing. Commercially fluorescent stains are available to stain 1D or 2D gels to visualize bands.

Answer: Apply Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation

Explanation:

Assuming the known parameters are the

frequency of two alleles 'B'and 'b' in a certain plant species, where 'B' is 0.19 and 'b' is 0.81

To calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the population.

Apply Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation, where heterozygotes are represented by the 2pq term.

Therefore, the number of heterozygous individuals (Bb) is equal to 2pq

2 × 0.19 × 0.81 = 0.31 or 31%

(b) To calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the population.

The homozygous recessive individuals (bb) are represented by the q^2 term in the H-W equilibrium

0.81 × 0.81 = 0.66 or 66%

Final answer:

Calculating the percentage of individuals with a particular trait in a population can be achieved through methods such as the Hardy-Weinberg formula for allele frequencies or capture-recapture for population size estimation. QTL simulations indicate the contribution of specific loci to genotypic variability. Genetic counseling makes use of genotype probability calculations from family pedigrees for inherited diseases.

Explanation:

To calculate the percentage of individuals with a particular trait in a population, we can use different methods depending on the information available. The Hardy-Weinberg formula is a tool that can be employed to estimate the allele frequencies in a population. When we know the frequency of individuals affected by a genetic condition, assuming genotype aa, and that all affected individuals have this genotype, we can derive allele frequencies using the equation q² = frequency of aa. For instance, if 0.04% of the population has the aa genotype (q² = 0.0004), we calculate the frequency of allele q by taking the square root of 0.0004, yielding q = 0.02. This allows us to then calculate allele p (since p + q = 1), and subsequently the frequency of the other genotypes (AA and Aa) within the population.

Another method for understanding population dynamics involves simulating quantitative trait loci (QTL). If we wanted one QTL to contribute 75% to the total genotypic variability, a second QTL to contribute 20%, and a third to contribute 5%, we would allocate their effects according to these proportions in the simulation model.

For estimating population size using marked individuals, the capture-recapture method is commonly utilized. If 80 deer are tagged and released, and then from a later capture of 100 deer, 20 are found to be marked, the population size (N) can be estimated using the ratio of marked to unmarked individuals in the second capture.

Finally, in the context of genetics, if we are advised of the mode of inheritance and genotypes present within a pedigree, we can calculate the probabilities of these genotypes being passed down to offspring. This is incredibly useful for genetic counseling and assessing risks of inherited conditions.

Answer:

A. To snag the fish with a harpoon, you should aim below where you see the fish.

Explanation:

Lets consider the refraction of light in water.

Light from the fish causes refraction (changes direction) at the surface. That's why the apparent position of the fish is more closer to the surface than its real position.

If you target above where you observe the fish, you miss.

If you aim straight where you see the fish, you miss.

If you aim below where you spot the fish, you will be hit your target.

Therefore, to snag the fish with a harpoon, you should target below where you spot the fish.

B. Using the laser, you should target directly or straight at (the image of) the fish. Its advantage over an arrow is yhe ability of laser light to be refracted by the water. If you target in the spot where you observe the fish, the laser light will refract by the exact same amount as the light passed from the fish to ones eyes (as in reverse).

Answer:

For (a) answer:

One need to know that due to refraction of light rays from the fish which travels from the water to the air, the fish is not positioned where you think it is, the fish is actually below where you perceive it to be. Therefore, in other to hit the fish one should target below where you see the image of the fish.

For (b) answer:

When using a laser, one should aim directly at the image you see of the fish because unlike the arrow, the laser will refract the same way the light is refracted thus getting the correct direction of where the fish is.

Answer:

Isozymes

Explanation:

A) Isozymes are the enzymes that differ in their structure and kinetics but catalyze the same reaction . Glycogen phosphorylase in liver and muscle are isozymes.

B) ATP are required in higher concentration by actively working muscle (higher glycolysis) and as the glycogen phosphorylase in muscle alternatively produce the glucose-6-phosphate for glycolysis, so it has higher Vmax value in muscle.

Glycogen phosphorylase in liver converts the glycogen to glucose to increase blood glucose level.