Answer: d) Specific deterrence
Explanation:
Specific deterrence is sort of punishment that is given to a person to reduce criminal behavior in future. Thus, the offender will not try to perform such illegal act due to discouragement caused by punishment.
According to the question, Mike will be subjected to specific deterrence so that he does not perform such criminal act in future for any reason. Tendency of theft will reduce in him because of arrest and punishment.
Other options are incorrect because General deterrence,Crackdown and Situational crime prevention are not the delinquency prevention method used for Mike for his crime.Thus, the correct option is option(d).
The delinquency prevention strategy being followed in this scenario is: d. Specific deterrence.
Specific deterrence is a delinquency prevention strategy focused on deterring individual offenders from engaging in future criminal behavior. In the scenario provided, Mike's actions of snatching an elderly woman's purse reflect criminal behavior. If he is caught, arrested, and sent to a detention facility, the aim is to make him understand the consequences of his actions and deter him from committing similar crimes in the future.
The idea is that the punishment he faces will act as a deterrent specific to him, discouraging him from repeating such actions and promoting law-abiding behavior. Specific deterrence seeks to address the individual offender's behavior through legal consequences and penalties. Option D is correct.
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What theory claims that nature exhibits a purpose, end, or goal; i.e., events in the world are directed to the fulfillment of some goal, thus there is a purposeful, goal-oriented structure attributed to the universe?
Answer:
Teleology
Explanation:
Teleology is derived from Greek words telos - purpose - and logos - study, knowledge, explanation- and means exactly that - the theory of idea where the explanation is in purpose.
This means theory which says everything is happening with a reason and purpose, to fulfill some function or goal.
Aristotle is one of the first and most celebrated philosophers who gave the base of teleology, explaining how anything and everything has a final cause and formal cause, even in nature - acorn has a goal of becoming an oak tree and continuing it's the line.
Philosophers who used the ideas and theories of teleology are Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, David Hume, and William Paley.
Conrad works at an advertising agency and is one of the first people called in when brainstorming for a new campaign. He has the unique ability to generate hundreds of creative suggestions that no one else seems to think of. This suggests that Conrad is skilled in:___________
a. convergent thinking.
b. transformational logic.
c. field dependence.
d. divergent thinking.
Answer: D. Divergent thinking
Explanation: Divergent thinking can be simple defined as a problem solving technique that sources for multiple ways of trying to solve a particular problem. Unlike the convergent thinking that places emphasis on a finite number of ways, the divergent thinking places emphasis on the numerous possible approaches that could provide the wanted result.
Conrad's ability to provide numerous creative suggestions shows that he is skilled in divergent thinking.
Answer:
D. Divergent thinking
Explanation:
Divergent thinking deals with an individual having lots of ideas in solving a problem.Such a person is said to be very creative and valuable due to this unique ability.
Divergent thinking produces a variety of solutions being able to be generated and proffered.
Since Conrad has the ability to generate hundred of suggestions then this means he is a divergent thinker .
Cordelia, an active duty marine, served in Afghanistan. While she was on patrol with her friend, an IED went off, killing her friend and injuring her. In the two months since her friend died, Cordelia has been jumpy, irritable, avoids talking about her friend, and once every few days experiences a flashback to the explosion. Cordelia is experiencing a ________ disorder.
Full question:
Cordelia, an active duty marine, served in Afghanistan. While she was on patrol with her friend, an IED went off, killing her friend and injuring her. In the two months since her friend died, Cordelia has been jumpy, irritable, avoids talking about her friend, and once every few days experiences a flashback to the explosion. Cordelia is experiencing a ________ disorder.
A. antisocial personality
B. mood
C. post traumatic stress
D. schizotypal personality
Answer:
Cordelia is experiencing a post traumatic stress disorder.
Explanation:
Posttraumatic stress disorder is a psychiatric malady that can transpire in souls who have encountered or observed a traumatic incident such as a natural hazard, a severe accident, a terrorist action, abduction or other drastic personal assaults.
Manifestations may cover flashbacks, illusions and relentless anxiety, as strong as stubborn views about the event. Characters with PTSD have deep, unpleasant thoughts and emotions related to their practices that last long after the traumatic event has ended. Ladies are double as believable as men to own PTSD.
Cordelia, an active duty marine, served in Afghanistan and is now displaying symptoms indicative of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), possibly due to the loss of her friend and her own injury from an IED explosion.
Explanation:Based on the details provided, Cordelia, an active duty marine who served in Afghanistan, is experiencing symptoms indicative of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These symptoms include but not limited to, being jumpy or easily startled, irritability, avoidance of stimuli that remind her of the traumatic event, and regularly experiencing flashbacks. PTSD is often a result of a profoundly stressful event, such as active combat, and the symptoms have to persist for at least a month for a diagnosis to be made.
It's important to understand not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will develop PTSD, and its development is associated with various risk factors. For instance, social support may play a role in decreasing the risk of PTSD, while repeated exposure to traumatic events may increase the individual's likelihood of developing PTSD.
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________ consists of four aspects: due process, separation of powers, an open and transparent system of making laws, and predictable and uniform application of the laws.
Answer:
The Rule of law.
Explanation:
The Rule of law represents equality before the law. It states that no one should is above the law irrespective of one's class or position in a country. It equally identifies the representatives in government and the extent of the powers that can be exercised by them. The Rule law was specifically created by the Constitution to ensure orderliness in the country. It provides for the independence of the Judiciary, Supremacy of the law, Separation of powers, equality before the law, etc.
What is political socialization? the process through which individuals self-select themselves to participate in public opinion polls the process through which individuals acquire status as opinion leaders the process through which individuals seek out the beliefs and values of those in office the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values
Answer:
the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values
Explanation:
Political socialization is the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values, it is a lifelong process through which individuals form their own political opinion, it is the process by which individuals builds his/her political believe.
By presenting research participants with incomplete objects, psychologists have been able to see how the participants come to determine what they are viewing. This research suggests that our daily experiences are the result of:_______.
Answer:
Research shows that our daily experiences is as a result of the individual differences in the objectives or goals of life.
Explanation:
The significance of objectives to influence in every day life has started to be set up in examine that appears, over the occasions of day by day life, a relationship between the substance of the objective an individual is taking a shot at and her or his effect while chipping away at the objective (Cantor, Norem et al., 1991; Emmons, 1991). Nonetheless, these examinations have not thought about that situational, relational, and transient settings may clarify this affiliation since settings might be dependable both for variety in the objectives an individual is chipping away at and for the influence an individual is encountering. To solidly set up the significance of objectives to influence, such third-factor clarifications must be precluded (West and Hepworth, 1991). In a 2-week experience-inspecting study, we demonstrated that objective significance can shift while settings are held steady, and that this variety remains related with variety in influence while the setting is held consistent, consequently precluding setting as a clarification of these affiliations.
Also, the significance of an objective to an individual was identified with this variety in objective interest inside every unique circumstance. It is examined how settings and objectives communicate to impact full of feeling involvement with day by day life.
Sonja buys a tropical bird from Ramon's rare bird store. Sonja asks Ramon about the bird's origins. Ramon tells her, "It is from the rainforests of Brazil, and it is extremely rare." Sonja asks Ramon whether the bird is on the endangered species list. Even though he knows the bird is on the list, he tells her that it is not. Government officials later seize the bird, informing Sonja that the bird is, in fact, an endangered species. To recover the price of the bird and the fines levied against her for buying an illegal bird, Sonja should file a lawsuit against Ramon for:
Answer:
fraudulent misrepresentation.
Explanation:
Fraudulent misrepresentation -
It refers the false statement or activity which can get some other person get into contract law , is referred to as the fraudulent misrepresentation .
The method involves giving false information about any object , which can mislead the other person .
For example , in the given scenario of the question ,
The person sold the birds giving Sonja false information about the bird , a actually the bird is some endangered breed .
Therefore , Sonja need to file a lawsuit against Ramon for fraudulent misrepresentation.
Fraudulent misrepresentation is a civil tort arising out of contract law. It is a false statement of fact that causes or induces someone to enter into a contract.
To keep from getting mosquito bites when he mows the lawn, Kevin always sprays himself with insect repellent before he starts mowing. Using operant conditioning terms, this is an example of:_______.a) positive reinforcement.b) negative reinforcement by avoidance.c) extinction.d) negative reinforcement by escape.
Answer:
d) negative reinforcement by escape.
Explanation:
In operant conditioning, there are two kinds of actions that can strengthen a behavior: reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement will make the subject to repeat a certain behavior. There are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In this case, the mosquito is acting as a negative reinforcement. If Kevin doesn't use insect repellent, the mosquito will give an unpleasant stimulus by bites. Kevin escape the stimulus by using repellent before he mowing.
Dan is trying to throw paper balls into a trash can. Every paper ball that he throws hits the left edge of the trash can and falls to the floor beside the can. Dan’s paper ball–throwing is best described as _________.
Answer:
reliable
Explanation:
To psychological research, the term reliability refers to the accuracy of an analysis or evaluating the test. The stability and consistency of a variable is a crucial factor which affects the reliability of a measure. As per the question, every attempt of Dam to throw paper balls into a trash can falls at the same position that is beside the can and therefore his paper ball–throwing is reliable.
"How much did you spend on food away from home last month" What is wrong with this question? It contains ambiguous words It is a "leading" or "loaded" question It is a "double barreled" question The respondent may not know the answer It is a question that has unstated consequences
Answer:
It is a "double barreled" question
Explanation:
The question shown above can be considered a double-barreled question. That's because, it doesn't specify what was spent on food outside the home last month. Was money spent? was gas used? was energy spent? we don't know, any of those things may have been spent.
A double-barreled question is the type of question that can address more than one subject, leaving the answer imprecise, because it may happen that the individual who received the question responds with something that is not exactly related to what the person who asked the question wants to know.
In Society in America, __________ examined religion, politics, child rearing, slavery, and immigration to the United States, paying special attention to social distinctions based on class, race, and gender.
Answer:
Harriet Martineau
Explanation:
Harriet Martineau was one of the earliest sociologists and considered the first female sociologist. She was born on 12th June 1802. She wrote about the relationship between economics, politics, social life, etc.
She asserted that when studying society it should be studied as a whole and every aspect of it. This includes politics, religion, social life, marriage life, children, home, etc.
It was Harriet Marineau who studied or examined all the aspects mentioned in the question above.
So, the correct answer is Harriet Martineau.
In Society in America, British sociologist d. Harriet Martineau examined religion, politics, child rearing, slavery, and immigration to the United States, paying special attention to social distinctions based on class, race, and gender.
Her work is pivotal for understanding historical and social dynamics in the U.S. during the early 19th century.Harriet Martineau was a pioneering sociologist and is often considered one of the first female sociologists. She provided an in-depth analysis of American society in the early 19th century, highlighting the significant issues related to ethnicity, class, and public policy.Her work is an essential part of social studies, particularly when discussing the historical context of societal structures and the dynamics of social inequality. By studying her observations, students can gain a deeper understanding of how social distinctions and policies affected various groups within the U.S.Complete question:
In Society in America, British sociologist ____ examined religion, politics, child rearing, slavery, and immigration to the United States, paying special attention to social distinctions based on class, race, and gender.
a. Jane Addams
b. Auguste Comte
c. Herbert Spencer
d. Harriet Martineau
Incident ____________________ is the process of examining a potential incident, or incident candidate, and determining whether or not the candidate constitutes an actual incident.
Answer:
Incident classification is the process of examining a potential incident, or incident candidate, and determining whether or not the candidate constitutes an actual incident.
The primary purpose of incident classification is to provide initial support. Initial support means proper analysis, evaluation and if required, routing. Classification is neither to determine root cause nor technical causes of the incident.
Incident assessment involves observation, gathering substantial evidence, and making a judgment to determine if a potential incident is an actual one. It requires meticulous investigation much like evaluating a film or employee performance, with introspection to understand different factors at play.
Explanation:Incident assessment is the process of examining a potential incident, or incident candidate, and determining whether or not the candidate constitutes an actual incident. This involves observation, which is the action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to gain information. It's a focused examination of an event, place, or individual to explore dynamics of analytical interest.
Gathering evidence is a critical part of this process. Much like evaluating a movie or an employee's performance, it requires meticulous observation over time and in different contexts. Evaluating a potential incident may require the observer to look at the sequence of events, the context, and to gather sufficient and relevant evidence to make an informed judgment.
Introspection is another part of the process, although this refers more to an individual examining their own conscious experience to understand it in parts. When applied to incident assessment, it suggests a deep reflective process aiming to break down various factors of the potential incident.
Which code of ethics is comprehensive, addressing the provider's conduct in interprofessional relations, hospital relations, confidentiality, fees, records, and professional rights?
AMA code of medical ethics is comprehensive, addressing the provider's conduct in inter professional relations, hospital relations, confidentiality, fees, records, and professional rights
Explanation:
Each and every profession has some ethics. Ethics means which include code of conduct, professional rights, and other rules and regulations of that particular service type. Like an author needs to maintain copyright act means where author would not be able to copy anyone else's work. He will liable for it to the govt.
Confidentiality, records needs to be maintained in each profession. These are the basic norms of every profession. In case of fees there must be a certain limitation so that no renowned doctor can claim excessive visit to the patient.
Three major sports franchises came to Atlanta due to:
a) Ivan Allen, Jr.
b) William Hartsfield
c) Eugene Talmadge
d) Herman Talmadge
Three major sports franchises came to Atlanta due to: a) Ivan Allen, Jr.
Explanation:
Ivan Allen, Jr was a businessman in United States of America. He served as 52nd mayor of Atlanta. He was responsible for bringing the three major sports franchises to Atlanta. He also involved and helped in desegregating the city hall of Atlanta.
Ivan Allen took great effort to construct Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium. He also thought that it is necessary for Atlanta to have a major league team. So he convinced many national leaders and brought many sports franchise to Atlanta.
A social engineering scam called ___________ is when a victim is promised a large sum of money in exchange for a bank account number from which a small advance fee is withdrawn.
Answer:
Advance fee fraud
Explanation:
A scam which involves a victim where they promise them a large amount of money in return of a small some payment upfront, in which a fraudster needs in-order to get the large amount.
A stadium manager is interested in whether the fans that buy tickets are demographically the same as the general population of the city. Currently 42% are Caucasian, 35% are Hispanic, 12% are African American, 8% are Asian, and the rest are defined as other. What is the appropriate test?
Answer:
Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test
Explanation:
Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test -
It refers to the type of non - parametric test , where the test is conducted to determine if the observed value is equal to the expected value , is referred to as the Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test .
In this test , the observed sample distribution is compared with the expected with the probability distribution .
Hence , from the given scenario of the question ,
The correct answer is Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test .
A 2012 study found that professors demonstrated bias against female candidates and in favor of male candidates when hiring for a science lab manager position. This type of bias is best described as ________.
Answer:
Sexism
Explanation:
Sexism is a stereotype or prejudice that is based on a individual's biological sex. Though sexism majorly affects females (girls and women), it is not limited to just females it can also affect males (boys ad men). Sexism is liked to gender roles ad also includes beliefs that a biological sex is superior to the other biological sex.
From the example, males were more considered for the managerial position over females, because of sexism and the belief that the male gender is superior to the female gender.
In a high school graduating class of 100 students, 54 studied mathematics, 69 studied history, and 35 studied both mathematics and history. If one of these students is selected at random, find the probability that a.(2 pts) the student took mathematicsor history;b.(2 pts) the student did not take either of these subjects;c.(2 pts) the student took history but not mathematics.
Answer:
a). 0.53
b). 0.12
c). 0.34
Explanation:
Instead of the traditional route of upward mobility as a way to achieve assimilation, immigrants increasingly appear to follow a variety of different pathways. Sociologists call this __________.
Answer:
The answer is segmented assimilation.
Explanation:
Assimilation occurs when an inmigrant group of people acquires the dominant culture of the country they're living in. This means they will adopt the ruling norms or customs.
The theory of segmented assimilation states that inmigrants will adopt values and ideas into different segments. This implies societies are unequal, especially regarding socio-economical status. For example, an inmigrant in the United States might assimilate the culture of middle-class groups; or he might belong to the poorer classes, and experience poverty and unemployment.
Scores on tests of individual differences, including intelligence test scores, often follow a pattern in which most scores are in the average range, with fewer scores in the extremely high or extremely low range. What is this pattern of distribution of scores called
Answer:
The normal distribution.
Explanation:
The normal distribution -
It is also known as normal curve , the gaussian curve and the bell curve , as the plot obtained is in the shape of a bell .
It is a very widely used distribution in the field of statistics .
This type of distribution is used in the social science and natural sciences , in order to represent the random variables where the distribution is not known .
Hence , from the given information of the question ,
The correct answer is The normal distribution.
Assume that The Maverick is a national newspaper in the United States. In this scenario, in which of the following instances is the federal government legally allowed to put a prior restraint on the publication of information:__________
Answer:
When The Maverick plans to publish information regarding the country's planned military operations in another country
Explanation:
prior restraint on the publication of information is the censorship law that that enables the Federal government restrain the publication of certain information after careful review. Prior restraint are placed on information that breaches the security of the state such as planned military operations in another country
"Women in two developed countries have similar total fertility rates of 3.5. However, women in country A typically have their children about 2 years earlier than women in country B. How will the populations of the two countries compare
Answer:
population of country A will grow faster than country B
Explanation:
When the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is greater than 2.1, then it means the population in that area would rightly be on the increase. Certain statistics released by the World Health Organization showed that between 2010 – 2015, the TFR averaged more than 3.5 births by one woman in over fifty –five countries of which 76% of these countries are found on the African continent.
So if two countries found here, with similar birth rates of 3.5, have the first country, A, to be giving birth about 2 years earlier than the second country B, then it means that the population of country A will definitely increase faster than that of country B.
Having a high IQ doesn't always guarantee success. Terman and Oden examined the most and least successful men in their sample of gifted individuals. The most successful were __________.
Answer: More goal oriented and persistent
Explanation:
Success and most success stories with those who built them has been hinged on two important fact; Being goal oriented and persistent, it is great to have a good IQ but when the IQ is not geared towards being goal oriented and being persistent someone with a lesser IQ that has those characteristics are more likely to succeed. Having goals gives you direction and a part to where you going irrespective of how intelligent you are and being persistent gives you the fuel not to give up easily especially when challenges arise bit to hold on even in failures as we know that failure or challenges are part of success.
In an experimental design, the______variable is manipulated by the researcher, with the goal of eliciting a significant response. Here, this was accomplished by pairing words and syllables according to one of three word types. Then researchers measured the______variable by asking subjects to assess______for each syllable. 1a. independent.b. dependent.2 a. dependent.b. independent.3 a. pleasantness rating.b. part of speech.
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Explanation:
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher and the dependent variable is simply measured later. The goal is to see the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (if such an effect is to be found).
Random assignment is a method for assigning participants in a sample to the different conditions, and it is an important element of all experimental research in psychology and other fields too. In its strictest sense, random assignment should meet two criteria.
The most common type of descriptive research is the case study, which provides an in-depth analysis of a specific person, group, or phenomenon. While their findings cannot be generalized to the overall population, case studies can provide important information for future research.
In an experimental design
The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher.Then researcher measures the dependent variable By asking subjects to assess part of speech for each syllableIn an experimental variable, the independent variable also called the explanatory variable is the variable that is used to measure changes in the dependent variable. Manipulating this variable causes changes to occur in the dependent variable.
The dependent variable on the other hand is the variable of interest. This variable is what is being measured and determined.
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Marisol was on the phone and had to jot down an important phone number. She rummaged through her purse for a pen, but all she found were a pair of tweezers and an old lipstick. Her failure to consider using the lipstick to write down the number is an example of__________________.
Answer:
The answer is functional fixedness.
Explanation:
Functional fixedness is described as the inability to use an object in a different way than usual. For example, a person looking for a pair of scissors to cut paper might not realise it's also possible to use a utility knife or even a ruler.
Studies show that very young children do not present functional fixedness. Instead, this phenomenon appears around age seven, when children learn to use objects "properly".
Marisol didn't consider using lipstick to write down a phone number because of functional fixedness, a cognitive bias that restricts the use of an object to its traditional purpose.
Explanation:Marisol's failure to consider using the lipstick to write down the number is an example of functional fixedness. This cognitive bias limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. In this situation, Marisol did not think of the lipstick as a potential writing tool but only as a cosmetic item, which is its common use. Functional fixedness is a type of cognitive bias that can hinder problem-solving and creativity by making it difficult to see objects in new and non-traditional ways.
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This statistical category is the sum of employed and unemployed persons who are 16 years or older, not full time students, and are actively seeking employment.
The total number of unemployed people is the statistic.
Explanation:
The number of unemployed people is defined by the number of people who do not have a job but are actively seeking employment.
This also has a filter on the total population against the age limit below which it is not legally permissible to work.
So, considering all these filters have been met in the description of the statistic mentioned in the question it is easy to assume that this statistic is about the total number of people who are unemployed in an area or a country.
Answer:
Labor Force
Explanation:
usatestprep
The concept of multi-directional development suggests that when change is gradual, as when water carves stone to form a canyon, it is an example of _____.
Answer:
continuity
Explanation:
The concept of multi-directional development is psychology suggest that development goes through in continues span and throughout life of human being whether it is biological, cognitive or emotionally. continuity refer that new knowledge , skill and information will accumulated with previous one and this process with continues in smooth and specific pattern. Its also means that development occur entire life of human in continues process.
Nikolaus, a high school junior, is on both the track and golf teams. How will a high level of physiological arousal affect his running the 100-meter dash and his accuracy in making long putts in a golf tournament
Answer:
It will enhance his running and will interfere with his putting
Explanation:
High level of physiological arousal will cause a person's blood pressure and rate of respiration to increase. When you run in this condition, you will actually optimize your performance since it the arousal will make you feel more energize.
But, playing golf does not necessarily benefited from blood pressure and rate of respiration. it's a slow game that require you to calm down and take your time to make a decision between your shots. High blood pressure and rate of respiration will actually make you become more anxious and it will interfere with your golf.
Final answer:
A high level of arousal may improve performance in high-energy tasks like the 100-meter dash but can impair performance in precision tasks like golf putting, in line with the Yerkes-Dodson law.
Explanation:
A high level of physiological arousal can have different effects on various sports activities. For a sport like running the 100-meter dash, a high level of arousal might be beneficial as it increases physiological preparedness and reaction time, which are crucial for sprinting. However, in golf, excessively high arousal can be detrimental, particularly for tasks requiring fine motor control and precision, such as making long putts. The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance and that this level varies with the complexity of the task. In golf, too much arousal might lead to poor performance due to an impairment in focus and motor control, which are essential for accuracy in putting.
A psychology professor asks a group of students to interview someone and determine whether or not the interviewee is an introvert. The professor asks another group of students to interview someone and determine whether or not they are extraverted. According to confirmation bias, the students in charge of determining introversion are likely to ask questions focused on ________, and students determining extraversion are likely to ask questions focused on ________.
Answer:
social withdrawal; sociability
Explanation:
Social withdrawal: In psychology, the term "social withdrawal" is referred to as a condition in which an individual tends to avoid the other person and various activities that he or she used to enjoy. It can cause depression, loneliness, etc. An individual who is dealing with social withdrawal generally feels isolated and spends time alone with oneself and referred to as an introvert.
Sociability: In psychology, the term "sociability" is considered as one of the personality traits that describes the capability of an individual to be fond of another person's company and seeks for opportunity related to social contact with other individuals and are referred to as extrovert.
A professor hands out an examination. According to the syllabus, the exam was supposed to cover Chapters 11 and 12. The students are shocked to see that the exam is covering Chapters 13 and 14 instead. This examination clearly lacks:_______.
Answer: Validity
Explanation:
Validity is the factor that defines logical and factual reasonableness behind any process or event.It determines working of any event or object is same as the intent that a object,.Thus, authenticity and correctness of any situation is based on validity.
According to the question, validity is absent in the scenario of examination because as per syllabus chapter 11 and 12 were supposed to be covered but chapter 13 and 14 were actually covered by examination .This determines that there is no logical reason behind this happening and it lacks authenticity.
The correct term to fill in the blank is ""validity.""
Validity in the context of an examination refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. In this scenario, the examination is supposed to assess the students' knowledge of Chapters 11 and 12 as per the syllabus. However, the professor has included Chapters 13 and 14 in the exam instead, which means the exam is not measuring the students' understanding of the material that was announced to be covered. This discrepancy between what the exam is supposed to assess and what it actually assesses indicates a lack of validity.
There are different types of validity, such as content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. In this case, the issue is primarily with content validity, which is concerned with whether the test items reflect the content of the subject area that is supposed to be measured. Since the exam does not cover the content that was specified in the syllabus, it lacks content validity. This can lead to an unfair assessment of the students' knowledge and can be a source of confusion and stress for the students who prepared according to the syllabus."